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Critical Minerals and Materials Program

Program Overview

The United States is dependent on China and other offshore sources for numerous critical materials that are essential to our nation’s economy and national security. These include medical and pharmaceutical goods and critical minerals and materials (CMM). Transitioning the production of these materials and their associated supply chains back to the United States is a strategic priority as evidenced by recently enacted and proposed legislation and several Executive Orders like President Biden’s declaration that the supply chain threat to critical minerals is a national emergency  [1,2]. Consequently, research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) efforts to create new domestic sources of CMM have been accelerated with the goal of making our domestic supply chains more resilient.

To address the challenge of leading our nation to secure national independence from rare earth element (REE) offshore reliance, in 2014 DOE’s Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management (FECM), and NETL performed an initial assessment under its Feasibility of Recovering Rare Earth Elements Program to assess the potential recovery of REEs from carbon ore and coal byproducts including run-of-mine coal, coal refuse (mineral matter that is removed from coal prior to shipment), clay/sandstone over/under-burden materials, ash (coal combustion residuals), and aqueous effluents such as acid mine drainage (AMD), as well as associated solids and precipitates resulting from AMD treatment. After reporting its findings in the DOE 2015 Report to Congress [3], DOE initiated a multi-year RD&D effort to demonstrate both the technical feasibility and economic viability of extracting, separating, and recovering REEs from these domestic coal-based resource materials. Basic and applied science research projects were conducted at national laboratories, small business organizations, and numerous universities, which led in 2016 to the design, construction, and operation of bench- and small pilot-scale facilities, and in 2018 to the production of small quantities (e.g., approximately 100 g/day) of greater than 90% (900,000 parts per million [ppm]) high-purity, mixed rare earth oxides (MREOs) using conventional physical beneficiation and chemical (hydrometallurgical) separation processes. Currently, state-of-the-art, conventional separation process system concepts are being assessed for near-future production of 1–3 tonnes/day of high-purity MREOs from coal-based resources in engineering prototype facilities.

To comply with Executive Order 13817, NETL’s program expanded its technology development effort in 2019 to include the recovery of critical minerals (CMs) [1] from coal-based resources. As a result, in 2020, NETL’s program required existing domestic small pilot-scale facilities to co-produce CMs in addition to producing REEs. In 2021, NETL’s program plans to initiate basinal coalition efforts to address realization of the full economic potential value of U.S. natural resources for producing REEs, CMs, and high-value, nonfuel, carbon-based products. The program also plans to holistically assess upstream mining of resources and physical separation (e.g., beneficiation); midstream processing, separation, recovery; purification of critical and high-value materials; and, ultimately, onshore downstream manufacturing that incorporates these materials into commodity or national defense products. In 2022, the program was renamed to Critical Minerals and Materials, encompassing research on both REEs and CMs, collectively referred to as critical minerals and materials (CMM).

Critical Minerals and Materials

As part of the lanthanide series (Figure 1) of elements, REEs are essential materials that are used in a broad range of technologies that are significant to domestic and national security, energy, and daily consumer products. REEs include lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), thulium (Th), yterrbium (Yb), lutetium (Lu), and the transition elements scandium (Sc) and yttrium (Y). Critical REEs are a potential supply risk and are highly important to future U.S. clean energy technologies.

REEs typically occur at low concentrations throughout the Earth’s crust. REEs are not found in an isolated form readily available for extraction but are distributed throughout a variety of minerals as monazite, bastnaesite, and xenotime. They can also be found in coal-based resources. REE-bearing mineral deposits are relatively rich in either light rare earth elements (LREEs) or heavy rare earth elements (HREEs), with the LREEs being more abundant (Figure 2).

As nonfuel minerals or materials, CMM are essential to our modern economy and national security and have a supply chain vulnerable to disruption. In addition to REEs, CMM include aluminum (bauxite), antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), barite (BaSO4), beryllium (Be), bismuth (Bi), cesium (Cs), chromium (Cr), cobalt Cr), fluorspar (CaF2), gallium (Ga), germanium (Ge), graphite (natural), hafnium (Hf), helium (He), indium (In), lithium (Li), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), niobium (Nb), platinum group metals, potash, the REEs group, rhenium (Re), rubidium (Rb), scandium (Sc), strontium (Sr), tantalum (Ta), tellurium (Te), tin (Sn), titanium (Ti), tungsten (W), uranium (U), vanadium (V), and zirconium (Zr). The average mean CMM concentration in carbon ore and select alternate materials is shown in Figure 3.

 

Figure 1 - Critical Minerals Including Rare Earth Elements
Figure 1 - Critical Minerals and Materials

 

Figure 2 - Concentration of Rare Earth Elements in Conventional Ores and Unconventional Resources as Coal, Coal Refuse, Fly Ash, and Acid Mine Drainage; Sedimentary Rock and Phosphate Rock
Figure 2 - Concentration of Rare Earth Elements in Conventional Ores and Unconventional Resources as Coal, Coal Refuse, Fly Ash, and Acid Mine Drainage; Sedimentary Rock and Phosphate Rock [3-10]

 

Figure 3 - Comparison of the Critical Minerals Concentration in Coal, Sedimentary Rock and Phosphate Rock
Figure 3 - Comparison of the Critical Minerals Concentration in Coal, Sedimentary Rock and Phosphate Rock [4-5,10-11]

U.S. Reliance on International CMM Markets

China has been the dominant global supplier of REEs since 1988, providing up to 95% of the global REE market annually. Since 2011, decisions by China to restrict exports and favor its own domestic industries have resulted in REE price volatility. Consequently, rising concern among industrialized nations has driven the resurgence of global interest in REE mineral exploration and extraction, and related research on supply, demand, utilization, recycling, reuse, and substitution. Several new commercial REE projects are in various stages of planning and development and are focused on diversifying supply. In contrast, new efforts to purify and refine REEs are limited.

In 2022, the United States imported more than 95% of its REE demand, primarily from China, and to a lesser extent from Malaysia, Estonia, and Japan [12]. In the same year, the United States was wholly reliant on imports of 10 CMs. The United States is over 50% reliant on imports for a further 17 additional CMs (31 when breaking out the REEs into individual materials).

A better understanding of the CMM supply chain and economics is required to reduce the barriers to domestic CMM production and to identify policy drivers needed to reduce investment risk. To address this, NETL has and continues to develop an extensive understanding of the existing and projected CMM markets and evaluates potential production pathways to identify technical or economic barriers to deployment.

Recovery of CMM from Coal-Based Resources — The Program

In 2014, the NETL’s program undertook the mission of expanding the nation’s supply of REEs, with an initial focus placed on addressing the feasibility of extracting, separating, recovering, and purifying these materials from coal-based resources. Through that effort, NETL identified promising domestic REE-containing coal-based resources and demonstrated the production of high-purity REEs in bench- and small pilot-scale facilities. The program is now poised to take the next step in demonstrating the feasibility of producing CMMs through the design, construction, and operation of an engineering-scale prototype facility. The operation of this facility, in conjunction with complementary R&D efforts to develop advanced transformational separation and production processes, establish our nation’s path forward for the operation of economically viable, domestic, and commercial-scale CMM separation and production facilities.

Program Mission, Objectives and Goals

The mission of NETL’s program since 2014 has been the development of an economically competitive and sustainable domestic supply of REEs to assist in maintaining our nation’s economic growth and national security. The program was expanded in 2020 to include CMs.

The objectives of the NETL program from 2014–2020 were to:

  • Recover REEs from carbon ore and coal byproduct streams, such as run-of-mine coal, coal refuse, clay/sandstone over/under-burden materials, power generation ash, and aqueous effluents as AMD.
  • Advance existing and/or develop new, second-generation, or transformational extraction and separation technologies to improve process system economics and reduce the environmental impact of the coal based REE value and supply chain.
  • Initiate efforts for the reduction of rare earth oxides (REOs) to rare earth metals (REMs).

The goals of the NETL program from 2014–2020 were to validate both the technical and economic feasibility of recovering CMM from coal-based resources. In 2019–2020, the program was accelerated to design, construct, and operate a domestic engineering-scale prototype facility in an environmentally benign manner, producing in the near-term 1–3 tonnes/day of MREOs or mixed rare earth salts (MRESs) from coal-based resources at purities of a minimum of 75% [13].

Program Structure

Based on Congressional language, in 2014–2015 NETL performed an assessment that analyzed the feasibility of economically recovering REEs from carbon ore and coal byproducts  [14-15]. In 2016–2018, the program was directed to expand its external agency activities to develop and test commercially viable advanced separation technologies at proof-of-concept or pilot-scale that can be deployed near-term for the extraction and recovery of CMM from U.S. carbon ore and coal byproduct sources having the highest potential for success [16-18].In 2019–2020, the program was directed to continue its external agency activities to develop and test advanced separation technologies and, as previously discussed, to accelerate the advancement of commercially viable technologies for the extraction and recovery of CMM from U.S. carbon ore and coal byproduct sources [19-20].

As shown in Figure 4, the program consisted of three core technology areas:

  • Enabling Technologies — Develop NETL’s technology knowledge through resource identification, field sampling and characterization, techno-economic analysis (TEA) development, and field and/or process sensor development.
  • Separations Technologies — Address the viability of utilizing commercially available extraction and separation equipment and/or systems that have been developed for alternate technologies, and demonstrate their capability (i.e., technology transfer) for the extraction and separation of CMM from coal-based resources. In parallel, develop new novel or embryonic/transformational CMM extraction and separation concepts.
  • Process Systems — Design, construct, and operate bench-scale and/or pilot-scale systems to validate the capability of producing CMM from coal-based resources. Expand RD&D to include similar design, construction, and operation of engineering-scale prototype-scale CMM separation facilities.

Figure 4 — Program Structure
Figure 4 — Program Structure — 2014-2020

Approach

The overarching mission of NETL’s CMM Program has been the development of an economically competitive and sustainable domestic supply of these critical materials within the United States. Achieving this mission has been conducted through research in field work proposal (FWP) projects at NETL’s Research and Innovation Center (RIC), as well as at alternate DOE national labs, including the Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL), Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), Idaho National Laboratory (INL), and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL).

Similarly, collaborative RD&D projects were conducted through funding opportunity announcements (FOAs), requests for proposal (RFP) awards with industrial stakeholders and numerous universities, and projects awarded under Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) programs.

As a fully integrated RD&D program (Figure 5), NETL’s efforts have uniquely spanned across basic and applied science and technology development (e.g., Technology Readiness Level [TRL] 1–3), through engineering design, construction, and operation of bench- and small pilot-scale separation facilities (TRL 3–5), and to the development of process designs for the operation of near-future engineering-scale prototype facilities (TRL 5–7).

Figure 5 — Critical Minerals and Materials Program Portfolio — 2014–2020
Figure 5 — Critical Minerals and Materials Program Portfolio — 2014–2020

Program Funding

Between 2014 and 2018, NETL’s program was funded at a level of $15M/year and consisted of more than 30 active projects. In 2019 and 2021, funding was increased to $18M and $23M, respectively. Additional SBIR CMM projects were conducted in conjunction with the Office of Science.

Program Accomplishments

NETL’s Research and Innovation Center (RIC)

NETL-RIC’s FWP portfolio has been focused on four core competency areas: (1) locating promising candidate CMM resources and potential reserves; (2) discovering and maturing technologies to extract and concentrate CMM; (3) reducing technology maturation time and risk of technology commercialization through advanced modeling and analysis; and (4) enabling process intensification and rapid deployment. 

Domestic Resource Assessment and Geospatial Modeling

Since 2015, NETL-RIC has conducted extensive field prospecting campaigns to locate potential candidate REE-containing coal-based materials. Efforts to identify promising resources are based on:

  • Understanding “how” REEs are present within the various materials (e.g., chemical phase composition and concentration), and to “what extent” REEs can be separated and recovered (e.g., extractability).
  • Developing a systematic method to predict “where” these resources may exist

Classic X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and microprobe analyses, and cutting-edge analytic characterization techniques (e.g., X-ray absorption near-edge structure [XANES] analysis at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory) have been utilized to address the “how,” which underpins the basis for development of novel extraction techniques (Figure 6). Questions such as “what phase and oxidation state these elements are in” provide insight on what is being selectively targeted during extraction, and what portion of the host rock can be discarded during processing.

Figure 6 — Sub-Micron REE Phase Association and Oxidation State Determination Using XANES Analysis
Figure 6 — Sub-Micron REE Phase Association and Oxidation State Determination Using XANES Analysis

Understanding where promising resources may exist is being addressed by the development of a method and tool to systematically identify high-concentration and extractable CMM deposits in sedimentary systems. Because it is not currently possible to predict these locations, the basis for NETL initiating development of the Rare Earth Element Sedimentary Resource Assessment Method (REE-SED) and tool in 2018 was to support systematic prediction and assessment of domestic REE deposits from coal-based resources and other sedimentary systems [21,22]. This method is the first-of-its-kind, big-data, machine learning (ML)-enabled, geoscience approach to improve prediction and identification of domestic sedimentary and coal-based resource and deposit locations containing high concentrations of CMM (Figure 7). This effort, in collaboration with industry, university, and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), as well as state surveys, has been key to NETL’s geo-data science modeling effort, which relies on data generation from strategic analysis of samples at the local scale. Looking ahead, REE-SED has unlimited potential and is expected to dramatically reduce the time required to locate potentially “new” promising CMM deposits.

Figure 7 — REE-SED Assessment Methodology
Figure 7 — REE-SED Assessment Methodology

REE Extraction and Recovery — Process Development

NETL-RIC has been successful in producing less than 95% purity (less than 950,000 ppm) MREO from a variety of sources, including waste products such as coal ash, AMD, and other materials resulting from legacy mining operations. Since 2015, REE extraction and recovery research at NETL-RIC has included not only physical and chemical separation efforts, but also development of advanced sorbent materials for sorption (e.g., capture) of REEs in naturally occurring coal waste streams or REEs from extraction and separation process fluids. These transformational efforts have ranged from lower TRL basic laboratory-scale research to field testing of advanced sorbents at the Pittsburgh Botanical Garden, a former abandoned mine site in Pennsylvania (Figure 8). A 2020 Technology Commercialization Fund (TCF) small pilot-scale project was initiated in collaboration with the University of Wyoming School of Energy Resources and other industrial partners to advance NETL-RIC’s extraction and separation process for recovery of REEs from calcium-enriched Powder River Basin ashes.

Figure 8 — NETL-RIC REE Extraction and Separation Process and Sorbent Development
Figure 8 — NETL-RIC REE Extraction and Separation Process and Sorbent Development

Addressing Key Areas to Deployment

In addition to the development and maturation of production processes, NETL-RIC’s technology development has systematically addressed other technology areas to promote the creation of a domestic CMM industry. This effort includes the development of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) models and real-time laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS), metal organic framework (MOF)-ultraviolet light source (UV), and fiber-optic sensors to enable process control in systems that typically operate at steady-state. CFD modeling and sensor development can enable process optimization and accelerate process intensification (reducing costs), as well as assist to de-risk deployment of potential CMM facilities (Figure 9).

Figure 9 — NETL-RIC CFD Modeling and Field/Process Sensor Development
Figure 9 — NETL-RIC CFD Modeling and Field/Process Sensor Development

TEA of separation processes has also been utilized to reduce R&D time. By identifying key areas for process optimization early in the R&D process, researchers can identify and focus on the metrics that impact cost and performance. TEA has been extensively utilized to support validation of CMM separation and extraction processes developed in NETL extramural stakeholder projects. NETL-RIC researchers have also developed a current and projected future CMM intermediate and end-product supply chain database.

Extramural CMM Research

Technology development in NETL’s federally funded extramural projects has systematically focused on field prospecting and resource assessment; integration of conventional physical beneficiation and chemical separation or hydrometallurgical processing of feedstock materials to produce high-purity coal-based MREOs; development of advanced, new-novel, transformational separation processes; TEA of conventional and transformational separation processes; and optimization and efficiency improvement of conventional separation processes to achieve system economic viability.

ince 2016, numerous extramural stakeholder extraction separation and recovery processing approaches have been identified and used to demonstrate the technical feasibility of extracting REEs from coal refuse, power generation ash, and AMD (Figure 10). By 2020, these efforts resulted in the design, construction, and operation of three first-of-a-kind, small pilot-scale facilities producing small quantities (e.g., approximately 100 g/day) of greater than 98–99% (greater than 980,000–990,000 ppm) high-purity MREOs from 300 ppm REE-containing coal-based feedstock materials using conventional physical beneficiation and hydrometallurgy (chemical separation) processes.

Figure 10 — Mixed Rare Earth Oxides Produced from Coal Refuse, Power Generation Ash and AMD
Figure 11 — Mixed Rare Earth Oxides Produced from Coal Refuse, Power Generation Ash and AMD

 

University of Kentucky Pilot-Scale CM Separation Facility

In 2018, the University of Kentucky produced small quantities of 80–90 wt% (800,000–900,000 ppm) pure MREOs in its modular pilot-scale facility (Figure 11) from coal refuse materials from the Central Appalachian and Illinois Coal Basins. Of the critical elements in the University of Kentucky’s REE concentrate, 45% were neodymium and yttrium, which are used in national defense technologies and the high-tech and renewable energy industries. In 2020, 98% pure MREO concentrates were produced with co-production of CMs.

Figure 11 — University of Kentucky’s Modular Pilot-Scale REE Separations Facility
Figure 11 — University of Kentucky’s Modular Pilot-Scale REE Separations Facility

West Virginia University Pilot-Scale CMM Separation Facility

Commissioned in July 2018, West Virginia University’s (WVU) bench/small pilot-scale rare earth extraction facility (Figure 12) began producing REE pre-concentrates from AMD and sludge materials from the Appalachian Coal Basin. By 2019, WVU produced approximately 80 wt% (800,000 ppm) pure MREO concentrate, and in 2020, WVU succeeded in producing approximately 98 wt% (980,000 ppm) pure MREO concentrates from AMD with co-production of CMs.

Figure 12 — West Virginia University’s Rare Earth Extraction FacilityFigure 13 — West Virginia University’s Rare Earth Extraction Facility

Figure 12 — West Virginia University’s Rare Earth Extraction Facility
Physical Sciences Inc. – Winner Water Services Pilot-Scale CMM Separation Facility

In July 2018, Physical Sciences Inc. (PSI) produced greater than 15 wt% (150,000 ppm) MREOs in their micro-pilot facility (Figure 13) in Andover, Massachusetts, using post-combustion ash that was generated in a power plant boiler that was burning East Kentucky Fire Clay coal. The micro-pilot facility was used by PSI to develop the design and operating parameters that were used to scale their process to the pilot-scale operating system with Winner Water Services in Sharon, Pennsylvania. The PSI-Winner Water pilot-scale facility became operational in November 2019.

Figure 13 — PSI-Winner Water's Pilot-Scale Rare Earth Extraction Facility. Upper Left Photo: University of Kentucky’s Center of Applied Energy Research Physical Beneficiation Facility; Lower Left Photo: PSI Micro-Pilot Facility in Andover, Massachusetts; Right Photo: Chemical Extraction facility in Sharon, Pennsylvania
Figure 13 — PSI-Winner Water Pilot-Scale Rare Earth Extraction Facility. Upper Left Photo: University of Kentucky’s Center of Applied Energy Research Physical Beneficiation Facility; Lower Left Photo: PSI Micro-Pilot Facility in Andover, Massachusetts; Right Photo: Chemical Extraction facility in Sharon, Pennsylvania

University of North Dakota Bench-Scale CMM Separation Facility

In 2019, the University of North Dakota demonstrated in its bench-scale facility (Figure 14), the capability of producing a 65-wt% (650,000-ppm) MREO concentrate from lignite using a one-step selective mineral acid leaching process. Efforts are continuing at the University of North Dakota to bring its pilot-scale facility online in 2021.

Figure 14 — University of North Dakota’s Bench-Scale Rare Earth Extraction Facility
Figure 14 — University of North Dakota’s Bench-Scale Rare Earth Extraction Facility

Technology Advancements

Numerous additional technical contributions have resulted from conduct of the extramural stakeholder projects. For example, researchers at WVU have demonstrated that nearly 100% of the REEs in AMD can be recovered, and that when REEs are extracted from small AMD material drying cells (e.g., ~0.5 acre x ~10-ft deep [Figure 15]), an estimated revenue of $250,000 (or greater) can result.

Figure 15 — AMD Stream and Small AMD Sludge Drying Cell
Figure 15 — AMD Stream and Small AMD Sludge Drying Cell

 

Researchers at the University of North Dakota have shown the relative ease of extracting REEs that are primarily contained in the organic fraction of lignite using a one-step selective mineral acid leaching process.

Researchers at the University of Kentucky, in collaboration with the University of Utah, have incorporated in situ sulfuric acid production through microbially enhanced heap leaching of pyrite in feedstock materials, improving coal refuse processing economics.

Each of these small-pilot-scale MREO facilities are currently implementing process design configurations for co-production of select CMs as Co, Mn, Ni, Ga and Gd.

Each of these small-pilot-scale MREO facilities are currently implementing process design configurations for co-production of select CMs, such as Co, Mn, Ni, Ga, and Gd.

In collaboration with Battelle Memorial Institute, Rare Earth Salts (RES) produced the first individually separated, high-purity (greater than 95%) REO from coal-based materials in 2020.

RD&D Assessment

Technology achievements resulting from both intramural and extramural projects have successfully demonstrated the potential for the utilization of carbon ore and coal-based resources to produce critical elements needed for the United States to drive toward the development of refineries that are essential for domestic commodity and defense product production. NETL’s program is additionally in line to realize the full potential value of coal-based resources.

The uniqueness of NETL’s program is its capability to not only impact both domestic and global technology integration across numerous supply chains and markets, but also to facilitate cross-functional technology development in and between NETL’s Crosscutting Research, Advanced Turbines, Solid Oxide Fuel Cells, and Carbon Ore Processing Technology Programs, as well as NETL’s Resource Sustainability Program.

CMM Supply Chain

When viewed in its entirety, the CMM supply or value chain consists of mining, separation, refining, alloying, and ultimately manufacturing devices and component parts (Figure 16). A major issue with respect to critical material development in the United States is the lack of refining, alloying, and fabricating capacity to domestically process these materials  [23].To achieve domestic self-reliance, ensuring a stable, sustainable CMM dual-use supply chain—from mine to manufactured product (Table 1)—is critically essential for clean energy and high-value defense platforms.

Figure 16 — Critical Minerals and Materials Supply Chain
Figure 16 — Critical Minerals and Materials Supply Chain

 

Table 1 — Critical Minerals: Major End Uses[23]


Aluminum (Bauxite)
Transportation, packaging, building, electrical
Antimony
Ceramics, glass, and rubber products, fire retardant
Arsenic
Lead storage batteries, herbicides, insecticides, military applications
Barite
Filler, extender, and weighing agent in paint, plastics and rubber
Beryllium
Auto and consumer electronics, defense applications
Bismuth
Additives for lead-free pipe fittings
Cesium
Photoelectric cells, and energy conversion devices
Chromium
Transportation, packaging, building, electrical
Cobalt
Super alloys, aircraft engines, batteries, permanent magnets
Fluorspar
Used in processing aluminum, and uranium
Gallium
Integrated circuits (in high-tech equipment), light emitting diodes (LEDs), solar cells
Germanium
Fiber optics, infrared optics, solar cells, other solar energy applications
Graphite (Natural)
Steelmaking, refractory applications, foundry operations, brake linings
Hafnium
Super alloys
Helium
Lifting gas, lab applications, MRI, welding
Indium
Electrical conduction, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), solar cells and photovoltaics
Lithium
Rechargeable batteries, ceramics, glass, chemical compounds

Manganese
Production of steel and other metals
Niobium
Steel and super alloys
Platinum Group Metals
Auto catalysts, fuel cells, jewelry
Potash
Fertilizer, chemical industry applications
Rare Earth Elements
Permanent magnets, petroleum refining, glass, lasers, steel alloys, fluorescent lighting
Rhenium
Super alloys in high temperature turbine engine components and petroleum-reforming catalysts
Rubidium
Biomedical research, electronics, specialty glass
Scandium
Ceramics, electronics, lasers, radioactive isotopes, lighting
Strontium
Additive in drilling fluids for oil and gas wells
Tantalum
Capacitors for electronic devices
Tellurium
Photovoltaic panels, solar cells, thermoelectric devices
Tin
Chemicals, tinplate, solder and alloys
Titanium Concentrate
Aerospace applications
Tungsten
Cutting tools, wear-resistant materials used in construction and metal making
Uranium
Fuel for nuclear reactors
Vanadium
Steelmaking, aerospace applications
Zirconium
Used in ceramics, foundry sand, refractories, and abrasives

Notably, approximately 40% of mined rare earth production is reduced to metals and alloys, including most of neodymium (Nd), samarium (Sm), and dysprosium (Dy), for applications such as neodymium metal for Nd-Fe-B permanent magnets, samarium metal for Sm-Co permanent magnets, lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce), praseodymium (Pr), and neodymium (Nd) for rechargeable battery electrodes [24].

By creating a sustainable domestic CMM supply chain, the United States would reduce its risk of supply disruption for essential domestic and military industries; have the potential to produce intermediate products and manufacture end-use products onshore, which are currently valued at more than $1.2 trillion; and prevent the United States from being left behind in the emerging clean energy technology market. A 40% growth of the current $5 billion global REE market is projected in the next five years, with similar growth projected for the CM market.

Clean Energy and Economic Security

Recent U.S. demand for REEs is approximately 13,000 tonnes/year (annual consumption varies) [25]. The estimated distribution in 2019 of rare earths (as oxides) based on end use was 75% catalysts, 5% metallurgical applications and alloys, 5% ceramic and glass, 5% polishing, and 10% other [26]. In 2010 and 2012, the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) indicated that military consumption accounted for less than 5% of domestic REE consumption (approximately 800 tonnes/year) that was associated with national security needs [27-28].

Domestic production of CMM from coal-based and/or alternate resources clearly supports our nation’s clean energy and economic security needs. Currently, the dominant end uses for REEs in the United States are for automobile catalysts and petroleum refining catalysts; use in phosphors in color television and flat panel displays (cell phones, portable DVDs, and laptops); permanent magnets and rechargeable batteries for hybrid and electric vehicles; metal alloys; glass polishing; ceramics; and numerous medical devices. Permanent magnets containing neodymium (Nd), gadolinium (Gd), praseodymium (Pr), dysprosium (Dy), and terbium (Tb) are used in numerous electrical and electronic components and new-generation generators for wind turbines [23]. In addition, critical minerals are used in permanent magnets for wind turbines and electric vehicles, fluorescent lighting, LEDs, photovoltaics, batteries for electric vehicles and storage, catalytic converters, fuel cells, gas turbines, hydrogen electrolysis, thermoelectrics, and vehicle light weighting.

Defense and National Security

Similarly, as dual-use materials, domestic production of CMM from coal-based and/or alternate resources supports our nation’s defense and national security needs. Defense applications that utilize REEs include jet fighter engines, missile guidance systems, antimissile defense, and satellite and communication systems. Critical minerals are additionally used in defense satellite communication equipment, guidance systems, military vehicles, armor, ammunitions, hardware, and imaging.

Future Direction

Building on the accomplishments achieved between 2014 and 2020 in NETL’s Feasibility of Recovering Rare Earth Elements program, and aligning the program to further support Executive Order 13817 [1], the following five areas are identified for conduct in DOE-NETL’s Critical Minerals and Materials Program:

  • Characterization Technology Development — Technology development and validation for environmentally sustainable exploration and production of CMM from various sources. This includes the economic recovery of CMM through identification (including physical and chemical properties), mineral assays, and prediction and assessment of resources and volumes of CMM from various feedstocks
  • Sustainable Mining Technology Development — Novel technology development and validation for sustainable conventional and unconventional mining to enable the recovery of CMM from sources that are not currently used for recovery, or that could be recoverable using more sustainable practices.
  • Concentration and Processing Technology Development — Advanced environmentally friendly and economically feasible technology development for beneficiation, concentration, and processing of CMM. This includes development of models to be used as virtual test platforms to optimize process separation designs.
  • Separation and Metallization Technology Development — Environmentally friendly and economic technology development of individually separated high-purity REOs and ultimately rare earth metals (REMs). High-purity elements will be critical for use in manufactured products.
  • Techno-Economic Analysis — Evaluation of the international CMM markets and assessment of the economics of commercial production.

R&D efforts in the Critical Minerals and Materials Program will continue to enable the recovery of CMM throughout the supply chain. Understanding the basinal deposit relationships of these CMM from carbon ore (e.g., coal byproducts and coal waste streams, such as AMD and fly ash), other ores, mining byproducts, abandoned mines, and other valuable sources will enable projects to address resources holistically. Advanced technologies developed throughout the supply chain and co-production business models will continue to improve the economics of future projects. The program will strive to develop and test, in engineering-scale prototype facilities, the technologies that industry will need to establish a domestic supply chain to help fuel our nation’s economic growth, transition to clean energy technologies, secure our energy independence by reducing our reliance on foreign sources, and increase our national security.

Final Comments

NETL’s Critical Minerals and Materials Program has demonstrated the first step toward national independence from reliance on offshore CMM suppliers through its 2014–2020 RD&D efforts using coal-based resources to produce small quantities of high-purity MREOs and CMs. Leveraging accelerated production of these materials in engineering-scale prototype, demonstration, and commercial facilities, in parallel with the return of onshore component manufacturing, will facilitate not only self-reliance, but also Made in America across numerous critical clean energy and defense product lines and supply chain markets.

Acknowledgments

External stakeholders who were previously under contract to NETL, external stakeholders who are currently participating on projects, NETL-RIC scientists and engineers, NETL Federal Project Managers, and FECM Program Managers are acknowledged for their many contributions to NETL’s Critical Minerals and Materials Program.

 

Stakeholders

References

  1. Executive Order 13817, A Federal Strategy to Ensure Secure and Reliable Supplies of Critical Minerals, December 20, 2017. List of Critical Minerals posted in Federal Register/Vol. 83, No. 97/Friday, May 18, 2018/Notices.
  2. Executive Order 13953, Threat to the Domestic Supply Chain From Reliance on Critical Minerals From Foreign Adversaries and Supporting the Domestic Mining and Processing Industries, September 30, 2020.
  3. United States Department of Energy Report to Congress. Report on Rare Earth Elements from Coal and Coal Byproducts, (2017). (https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2018/01/f47/EXEC-2014-000442%20-%20for%20Conrad%20Regis%202.2.17.pdf)
  4. U.S. Coal - Finkelman, R.B., Trace and Minor Elements in Coal, in Organic Geochemistry: Principles and Applications, M.H. Engel and S.A. Macko, Editors. 1993, Springer US: Boston, MA. p. 593-607.
  5. Sedimentary Rocks - Ketris, M.P. and Y.E. Yudovich, Estimations of Clarkes for Carbonaceous biolithes: World averages for trace element contents in black shales and coals. International Journal of Coal Geology, 2009. 78(2): p. 135-148.
  6. Coal Ash, Coal Refuse, AMD - NETL Rare Earth Element and Critical Minerals Virtual Annual Review Meeting, September 2020.   
  7. Mount Weld - USGS https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/prd-wret/assets/palladium/production/mineral-pubs/rare-earth/myb1-2013-raree.pdf
  8. Chapter 3: Geological Settings of rare-Earth-element Deposits in Australia http://www.ga.gov.au/webtemp/image_cache/GA19677.pdf  Calculated assuming 10.7% average gradehttp://www.ga.gov.au/webtemp/image_cache/GA19677.pdf) and %REO from USGS (https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/prd-wret/assets/palladium/production/mineral-pubs/rare-earth/myb1-2013-raree.pdf)
  9. Mountain Pass - USGS: http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2012/1016/report/OF12-1016.pdf
  10. Phosphate Rock - Liang, H., et al., Rare-earth leaching from Florida phosphate rock in wet-process phosphoric acid production. Minerals & Metallurgical Processing, 2017. 34(3): p. 146-153.
  11. Gladney, E.S., et al., Compilation of elemental concentration data for NBS clinical, biological, geological, and environmental standard reference materials. 1987.
  12. https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/executive-order-addressing-threat-domestic-supply-chain-reliance-critical-minerals-foreign-adversaries/
  13. Production of Mixed Rare Earth Oxides (REOs) from Coal-Based Resources, DOE-NETL RFP-89243320RFE000032, Issued April 22, 2020; Awards made September 15, 2020.
  14. United States, Congress. Congressional Record. Explanatory Statement Submitted by Mr. Rogers of Kentucky, Chairman of The House Committee on Appropriations Regarding the House Amendment to the Senate Amendment on H.R. 3547, Consolidated Appropriations Act, (2014). (https://www.congress.gov/congressional-record/2014/1/15/house-section/article/H475-2)
  15. United States, Congress. Congressional Record. Proceedings and Debates of the 113th Congress, Second Session, No. 151-Book II (2014).
  16. United States, Congress. H.R. Report 114-91. Energy and Water Development Appropriations Bill, (2016). (https://www.congress.gov/114/crpt/hrpt91/CRPT-114hrpt91.pdf)
  17. United States, Congress. Public Law 115-31. H.R.244 - Consolidated Appropriations Act, (2017). (https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/244/text)
  18. United States, Congress. Public Law 115-141. H.R.1625 - Consolidated Appropriations Act, (2018).  (https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/1625/text)
  19. Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations Bill, 2019; 116th Congress, House of Representatives.
  20. Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations Bill, 2020; 116th Congress, House of Representatives.
  21.  Bauer, J., Justman, D., Mark-Moser, M., Romeo, L., Creason, C. G., and K. Rose. Exploring Beneath the Basemap. In D. Wright and C. Harder (Eds) GIS for Science (vol 2).  Digital released https://www.gisforscience.com/chapter5/
  22.  NETL, REE-SED, NETL’s REE Sedimentary Resource Assessment Method, August 2020, https://www.netl.doe.gov/sites/default/files/2020-08/REE-SED%20Infographic-01.png
  23.  Humphries, M., Critical Minerals and the U.S. Public Policy, Congressional Research Services (CRS) Report Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress, June 28, 2019, R-458110.
  24.  Lucas, J., Lucas, P., Le Mercier, T., Rollat, A., and Davenport, W.G., Rare Earths: Science, Technology, Production and Use, Elsevier, 2014.
  25. https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-rare-earths.pdf
  26. Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey, Minerals Commodity Summaries 2020, January 31, 2020, ISBN 978-1-4113-4362-7.
  27. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2010-11-01/pentagon-is-myopic-over-china-s-rare-earths-monopoly-u-s-lawmaker-says
  28. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-04-09/rare-earths-shortage-would-spur-pentagon-to-action